Mine Ban TreatyArticle 5 deadline: 1 April 2020
(Unclear whether on track to meet deadline)

Not a signatory to the Convention on Cluster Munitions

Recommendations for action 

• Tajikistan should, as soon as possible, complete survey of the 107 mined areas whose records were made publicly available in September 2013, so as to clarify the actual extent of mine/explosive remnants of war (ERW) contamination.
• Tajikistan should then revise its Mine Ban Treaty Article 5 completion workplan and its mine action strategic plan with precise and clear milestones.
• Tajikistan should develop a resource mobilization strategy, to secure funding for mine clearance operations in both the border regions and the central region.
• Tajikistan should complete clearance of its sole remaining area known to contain cluster munition remnants as soon as possible. 

Contamination

Mine and ERW contamination (see below for cluster munition contamination)

The Republic of Tajikistan has 4.9km² of confirmed hazardous area (CHA) and a further 6.4km² of suspected hazardous area (SHA), across three provinces, as set out in the table below. However, it is unclear if this data pertains entirely to mined area or if it also includes ERW contamination.

Contamination by province as of end 2014[1]

Note: * 107 unsurveyed minefield records, covering 146 mined areas and approximately 4.4km² 

Mine contamination in Tajikistan is the consequence of different conflicts. Tajikistan’s border with Afghanistan was mined by Russian forces in 1992–1998; the border with Uzbekistan was mined by Uzbek forces in 2000–2001; and the central region of Tajikistan was contaminated as a result of the 1992–1997 civil war.[2]

Mine contamination remains in the provinces of Khatlon (on the Afghan border), the central region, and in Gorno-Badakhshan (GBAO). In 2013, following a Swiss Foundation for Mine Action (FSD) survey, FSD and the Tajikistan Mine Action Centre (TMAC) concluded that no mines remain on the Tajikistan side of the border with Uzbekistan.[3] 

The estimation of the size of contaminated land has fluctuated over the past 10 years. A national survey in 2003–2005 by FSD estimated mine and ERW contamination to extend over 50km2.[4] However, sizes of SHAs were miscalculated and their descriptions not clearly recorded.[5] As of January 2013, TMAC had reduced total SHA to 7.2km2.[6] In September 2013, however, TMAC revised its estimate of remaining contamination to almost 11.7km2 of contaminated land: 9.3km2 of mined area and just under 2.4km2 of battle area.[7] In March 2014, TMAC reiterated its estimate of contaminated area of 11.7km2, but claimed that 8.9km2 contained mines, while 2.8km2 contained ERW.[8] The estimates did not, however, include area covered by 110 minefield records that were made public for the first time by TMAC in September 2013.[9] According to TMAC, survey of the areas covered by these records would take place in 2014.[10] The minefield records concern areas where security constraints have prevented survey activities in the past.[11] The number of previously unrecorded minefields was subsequently confirmed as 107 (not 110), and nearly all are located on the border with Afghanistan.[12] Non-technical survey of the 107 minefields began in 2014 (see section on Survey in 2014 below).[13]

According to a Mine Ban Treaty Article 5 progress report, delivered by Tajikistan at the Mine Ban Treaty Third Review Conference, as at 1 January 2014, total remaining contamination was 13.08km2, although it was unclear if this included battle area.[14] At the Mine Ban Treaty intersessional meetings in June 2015, Tajikistan reported that “100 confirmed mined areas plus 149 unsurveyed areas are remaining for conducting NTS [non-technical survey] and clearance operations,” and that the “total size of areas consists more than 11km2.”[15] The Tajikistan National Mine Action Centre (TNMAC, the successor body to TMAC) subsequently explained that this data likely included battle area clearance and unsurveyed minefield records, and that the correct data is what was reported to NPA as at the end of 2014, the figures provided in the table above.[16]

Mine contamination in Tajikistan also constrains development, limiting access to grazing and agricultural land, and affecting farming, wood gathering, and grazing activities related to rural life, especially in the central region.[17] The threat from mines is greatest when people come to the mountain areas to graze their sheep.[18]

Cluster munition contamination

Tajikistan has 150,000m² (0.15km²) of area confirmed to contain cluster munition remnants, located in Darvoz district of Gorno-Badakhshan province in the central region.[19] Cluster munitions were used during Tajikistan’s civil war in the 1990s, though the user’s identity is not known. 

In 2007–2008, 336,000m² (0.34km²) of cluster munition-contaminated land was cleared, with the destruction of 500 submunitions. In 2009 and 2010, re-survey of the area identified four hazardous areas covering 150,000m², which were subsequently reclassified as battle areas without cluster munition contamination.[20] In 2010, two submunitions were destroyed during clearance in the central region.[21] Prior to 2014, the last unexploded submunition to be found was in 2011.[22]

In 2014, based on information provided by a member of the local Sagirdasht community, the quality assurance (QA)/quality control (QC) team of TNMAC found one AO-2.5RT submunition in Darvoz district. The QA/QC team subsequently found other submunitions, covering a total area they estimated at 400,000m².[23] This estimate was subsequently revised downwards by Norwegian People’s Aid (NPA) to 150,000m², following a field visit in July 2015.[24] During the visit, containers for two AO-2.5RT strikes, evidence of submunition detonations, and nine unexploded submunitions were seen in the same area.[25] The contaminated land is used for pasture during the summer months when the snow has melted, and the nearest village is 15km away.[26] The contaminated area is around 200 meters from the nearest suspected mined area.[27]

Prior to this recent discovery of land containing cluster munition remnants, it was believed that only a residual threat from cluster munition remnants remained, in the central region.[28] Tajikistan has stated that once survey and clearance of this area is completed, the country will have cleared all known areas containing cluster munition remnants, although it is acknowledged that submunitions may still be discovered during other survey and clearance operations.[29]

Program Management

The Commission for the Implementation of International Humanitarian Law (CIIHL) acts as Tajikistan’s national mine action authority, responsible for mainstreaming mine action in the government’s socioeconomic development policies.[30]

In June 2003, the government of Tajikistan and the UNDP established TMAC with a view to it becoming a nationally owned program.[31] TMAC was made responsible for coordination and monitoring of all mine action activities.[32] Since then, TMAC has acted as the secretariat for the CIIHL, to which it reports.[33]

On 3 January 2014, by government decree, TNMAC was established.[34] Prior to this, a lack of legal recognition had presented problems for TMAC.[35] For example, TMAC could not open a bank account to receive and disburse funds.[36] The importance of clarifying TMAC’s status had been highlighted in the 2012 evaluation of UNDP support to mine action in Tajikistan.[37] TNMAC reports to the First Deputy Prime Minister of Tajikistan, who chairs the CIIHL. Since its nationalization, TNMAC believes its cooperation with national ministries and agencies has improved.[38]

The Ministry of Defense plays a significant role in Tajikistan’s mine action sector. With the adoption by the Ministry of the Strategic Plan on Humanitarian Demining (2013–2016) in July 2013, the ministry focuses on three main objectives: to further support demining; enhance national capacities; and create the conditions for a sound national mine action program.[39]

Strategic planning

The current national mine action strategic plan (NMASP) 2010–2015 expires at the end of 2015, and a new strategy for 2016–2020 was under development as of the middle of the year.[40] The TNMAC completion workplan (2015–2020) was also under revision, but relates predominantly to mine survey and clearance, and to Article 5 of the Mine Ban Treaty.[41] 

Legislation and standards 

In 2015, Tajikistan drafted a “Humanitarian Demining Law,” which includes all aspects of Mine Action. As of June 2015, the draft law was due to be circulated for consultation, after which it must be approved by parliament and signed by the President of Tajikistan. It was expected that the law would be adopted by November 2015.[42]

Tajikistan’s National Mine Action Standards (TNMAS) have been revised and were awaiting translation into Russian and government approval as of June 2015. The TNMAS predominantly refer to mines, but also cover UXO, including cluster munition remnants.[43] 

Operators 

The Swiss Foundation for Mine Action (FSD) and NPA are the two international demining operators in Tajikistan. FSD started operations in 2003, since when it has: conducted surveys (in 2004–2005 and 2007–2009) and clearance; provided technical assistance to TMAC; and, by November 2012, supported the development of the Union of Sappers of Tajikistan’s capacity.[44] NPA started operations in Tajikistan after signing a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with the government in 2010.[45]

As of the end of 2014, combined FSD, NPA, and Ministry of Defense operational capacity for survey and clearance in Tajikistan comprised 184 employees across 14 multipurpose teams, one non-technical survey team, and one mechanical demining team. While manual demining capacity increased slightly in 2014 compared to the previous year, mechanical capacity decreased, with only one of FSD’s two machines operating. The Ministry of Defense’s demining machine was also not operational in 2014, due to difficulties obtaining spare parts. Mine detection dogs (MDDs) were not operational at all in 2014, as few of the remaining contaminated areas are accessible to machines, and the dogs have been handed over to the police and border guards (the reason for this is not known).[46]

In 2014, FSD deployed one five-strong non-technical survey team; two multipurpose manual teams (totaling 26 personnel), and one six-strong mechanical demining team.[47]

NPA increased its capacity from eight 12-person manual demining teams in 2013 to nine teams in 2014, thanks to deployment of an additional all-female team in April 2014. Six of the teams comprised seconded military staff.[48]

Following the signature of a MoU with the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) in 2009, the Ministry of Defense established a Humanitarian Demining Unit (HDU).[49] Since TMAC’s nationalization, the HDU has acted as a contractor for TNMAC, and the OSCE funds the HDU through TNMAC.[50] The OSCE office in Tajikistan has been supporting mine action since 2003. The OSCE’s strategy in Tajikistan is twofold: supporting national capacity building for demining and fostering regional cooperation in border management and security.[51] The OSCE supported the HDU via the Union of Sappers of Tajikistan (UST), which it contracted to provide project management and administrative support to the HDU from 2010–2013.[52] The UST is accredited to conduct non-technical survey, mine risk education, and victim assistance, but is not yet accredited to conduct technical survey or clearance. Accreditation for technical survey and clearance was expected to be received in the autumn of 2015.[53]

In 2014, the Ministry of Defense’s HDU deployed three multipurpose teams totaling 39 personnel.[54] In 2013, the OSCE financed the operational costs of the HDU’s Mini MineWolf, which was procured and delivered by the United States (US) Department of Defense Foreign Military Financing program in 2012.[55] Between 2012 and 2013, the HDU increased its capacity by adding a manual demining team, which has been financed by the US’s Office of Weapons Removal and Abatement of the Bureau of Political-Military Affairs (PM/WRA) and by Luxembourg via the OSCE Office in Tajikistan.[56] Due to financial issues, however, overall operational capacity in 2015 has reduced to 11 manual clearance teams and one non-technical survey team.[57]

Deminer safety 

Three mine accidents were reported in 2014. On 6 May, an NPA team leader was injured in a mine blast, losing his right leg below the knee.[58] On 6 June 2014, an FSD deminer was injured during clearance operations.[59] On 1 October 2014, an NPA deminer suffered a minor injury, but later returned to work.[60]

Land Release (Mines) 

The total mined area released by clearance and technical survey in 2014 was just over 1.15km², compared with 2.93km² in 2013. A further 0.85km² was cancelled in 2014 by survey. 

Survey in 2014 (mines)

In 2014, just under 0.5km² was reduced by technical survey while 0.85km² was cancelled and almost 0.83km² was confirmed as mined by non-technical survey (see the table below).[61]

In 2014, TNMAC and UNDP convened a Land Release Technology Working Group comprising TNMAC, UNDP, NPA, and FSD, to undertake joint non-technical and technical surve. The joint assessment and re-survey was deemed necessary as results of previous survey had been found to be of poor quality and inadequate to accurately define CHAs and SHAs.[62] 

The joint assessment on its own covered five priority areas located in three districts in the central region, and resulted in cancellation of 685,000m² as well as confirmation of two mined areas totaling 200,000m².

The central region had previously been restricted for mine action activities since internal armed conflict in late 2010 and 2011. In 2014, however, restrictions were gradually lifted and TNMAC was granted permission to resume operations there.[63] Following the joint assessment, NPA completed survey and clearance of the remaining task in Rasht, resulting in the district being declared mine-free.[64] This secured access for the local community (324 beneficiaries) to water, pastures, and wood gathering.[65] 

In addition to the joint assessment, FSD, NPA, and the Ministry of Defense also conducted individual survey and clearance operations, as detailed in the table below. 

From September to November 2014, FSD began surveying the 107 minefields, the existence of which had not been made public until September 2013. During 2014, FSD completed survey of 18 of the 107 minefields.[66]

Survey in 2014[67]

Note: MoD = Ministry of Defense; TS = technical survey.

Clearance in 2014 (mines)

In 2014, FSD, NPA, and the HDU cleared 0.65km² of mined area, releasing 48 areas and destroying 5,990 antipersonnel mines and 80 items of UXO (see table below). This is a major decrease from 2013, when the same three bodies released 1.99km2 through clearance.[68]

Mine clearance in 2014[69]

TMAC had expected to release 2km2 of contaminated land in 2014,[70] therefore the amount of land cleared in 2014 was lower than expected. NPA attributed its increased land release in 2014 compared to the previous year to increased capacity (one extra team in 2014); beginning earlier in the demining season; and greater efficiency resulting from staff capacity building.[71] FSD reported that lack of funding resulted in a decrease in its operational capacity, and subsequently in the area of land it cleared in 2014.[72] 

Progress in 2015 (mines)

TNMAC reported that operations in 2015 would be focused on manual demining, as most areas accessible to machines and MDDs have now been released.[73]

NPA was focusing operations in the central region during the summer of 2015, and along the Afghan border during the remainder of the demining season.[74]

Continuation of survey of the 107 minefields (which had previously not been made public until 2013) that started in 2014, was due to continue in 2015. However, survey, by one non-technical survey team, was postponed, due to a delay in receiving funds. The survey was scheduled to start in October 2015.[75]

Land Release (Cluster Munition Remnants)

No cluster munition-contaminated area was released by clearance or technical survey in 2014, and no area suspected to contain cluster munition remnants was cancelled by non-technical survey.

Survey in 2014 (cluster munition remnants)

As noted above, in 2014, TNMAC’s QA/QC team found one AO-2.5RT submunition and, following further investigation, identified an area of some 400,000m² that contains unexploded submunitions.[76] This was revised downwards to 150,000m² by NPA, as a result of a field visit to the site in July 2015.[77] 

Progress in 2015 (cluster munition remnants)

In 2015, NPA planned to conduct technical survey in order to define more accurately the boundaries of the contaminated area and then to conduct battle area clearance to release the land. Due to adverse weather it is only possible to conduct land release operations during four months of the year. Weather permitting, it was planned to complete survey and clearance of the remaining cluster munition-contaminated area before the end of 2015.[78] 

TNMAC and NPA believe that once the remaining contaminated area is released in 2015, Tajikistan will have cleared all cluster munition-contaminated areas in the country.[79] 

Mine Ban Treaty Article 5 Compliance

Under Article 5 of the Mine Ban Treaty (and in accordance with the 10-year extension granted by States Parties in 2009), Tajikistan is required to destroy all antipersonnel mines in areas under its jurisdiction or control as soon as possible, but not later than 1 April 2020. It is unclear whether Tajikistan is on track to meet this deadline.

In granting the Mine Ban Treaty Article 5 extension request in 2009, States Parties noted that while no demining had taken place until more than four years after Tajikistan became a State Party to the convention, since then significant progress has been made, particularly by release of land through resurvey. States Parties further noted that use of mechanical demining assets might enable Tajikistan to “find itself in a situation wherein it could proceed with implementation much faster than that suggested by the amount of time requested.” The analyzing group mandated to analyze extension requests under Mine Ban Treaty Article 5 also noted shortcomings in Tajikistan’s original estimate of the size and locations of mined areas and recognition by Tajikistan of the need for resurvey. 

In the last five years, Tajikistan has cleared a total of 7.22km2 of mined area (see table below). 

Mine clearance in 2010–2014[80]

Between 2003 and the end of 2014, Tajikistan reported conducting land release over 234 mined areas in 16 districts, resulting in release of 14.5km² through survey and clearance operations.[81] It is unclear whether these figures include ERW. 

Many suspected or confirmed mined areas in Tajikistan are in remote and difficult-to-access locations with challenging terrain. TNMAC is assessing how to address these challenges in order to meet its Mine Ban Treaty Article 5 clearance obligations.[82] Extreme weather conditions also pose a challenge to clearance operations, with many SHAs only accessible for three to four months of the year, during the summer.[83] NPA reported that one of the remaining tasks in the central region, in Tojikobod, is extremely remote and at a high altitude, making it difficult to plan technical survey and clearance.[84]

In addition, Tajikistan has reported that other risk factors that may affect implementation of its Mine Ban Treaty Article 5 plan included, reduced operational capacity due to decreased funding and potential change in the security situation at the Tajik-Afghan border.[85]